Hieroglyphic
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Showing posts with label Hieroglyphic. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Hieroglyphic. Show all posts
History of ancient Egypt
History of ancient Egypt
The history of Ancient Egypt spans the period from the early predynastic settlements of the northern Nile Valley to the Roman conquest in 30 BC. The Pharaonic Period is dated from around 3200 BC, when Lower and Upper Egypt became a unified state, until the country fell under Greek rule in 332 BC.
Chronology
Egypt's history is split into several different periods according to the ruling dynasty of each pharaoh. The dating of events is still a subject of research. The conservative dates are not supported by any reliable absolute date for a span of about three millennia. The following is the list according to conventional Egyptian chronology.
Predynastic Period (Prior to 3100 BC)
Protodynastic Period (Approximately 3100 - 3000 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (1st–2nd Dynasties)
Old Kingdom (3rd–6th Dynasties)
First Intermediate Period (7th–11th Dynasties)
Middle Kingdom (12th–13th Dynasties)
Second Intermediate Period (14th–17th Dynasties)
New Kingdom (18th–20th Dynasties)
Third Intermediate Period (21st–25th Dynasties) (also known as the Libyan Period)
Late Period (26th–31st Dynasties)
neolithic period
The Nile has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile during the Pleistocene. Traces of these early people appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. To the Egyptians the Nile meant life and the desert meant death. Though the desert did provide them protection from invaders.
Along the Nile, in the 12th millennium BC, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering people using stone tools. Evidence also indicates human habitation and cattle herding in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the Sudan border, before 8000 BC. But according to Barbara Barich the idea of an independent bovine domestication event in Africa must be abandoned because subsequent evidence gathered over a period of thirty years has failed to corroborate this. In light of this the oldest known domesticated bovine remains in Africa are from the Fayum c. 4400 BC. Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies suggest that natural climate changes around 8000 BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of northern Africa, eventually forming the Sahara (c.2500 BC).
Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and forced them to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. However, the period from 9000 to 6000 BC has left very little in the way of archaeological evidence.
Predynastic period
A Naqada II vase decorated with gazelles, on display at the Louvre.
The Nile Valley of Egypt was basically uninhabitable until the work of clearing and irrigating the land along the banks of the river was started. However it appears that this clearance and irrigation was largely under way by about 6000 BC. By that time, society in the Nile Valley was already engaged in organized agriculture and the construction of large buildings in the Nile Valley. At this time, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and also constructing large buildings. Mortar was in use by 4000 BC. The people of the Nile Valley and on delta were self-sufficient and were raising barley and emmer (an early variety of wheat) and stored it in pits lined with reed mats. They raised cattle, goats and pigs and they wove linens and baskets. The Predynastic Period continues through this time, variously held to begin with the Naqada culture.
Between 5500 and 3100 BC, during Egypt's Predynastic Period, small settlements flourished along the Nile, whose delta empties into the Mediterranean Sea. By 3300 BC, just before the first Egyptian dynasty, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper Egypt, Ta Shemau, to the south, and Lower Egypt, Ta Mehu, to the north. The dividing line was drawn roughly in the area of modern Cairo.
The Tasian culture was the next to appear in Upper Egypt. This group is named for the burials found at Der Tasa, a site on the east bank of the Nile between Asyut and Akhmim. The Tasian culture group is notable for producing the earliest blacktop-ware, a type of red and brown pottery which has been painted black on its top and interior.
The Badarian Culture, named for the Badari site near Der Tasa, followed the Tasian culture, however similarities between the two have led many to avoid differentiating between them at all. The Badarian Culture continued to produce the kind of pottery called Blacktop-ware (although its quality was much improved over previous specimens), and was assigned the Sequence Dating numbers between 21 and 29. The significant difference, however, between the Tasian and Badarian culture groups which prevents scholars from completely merging the two together is that Badarian sites use copper in addition to stone, and thus are chalcolithic settlements, while the Tasian sites are still Neolithic, and are considered technically part of the Stone Age.
A Naqada II vase decorated with gazelles, on display at the Louvre
The Amratian culture is named after the site of el-Amra, about 120 km south of Badari. El-Amra was the first site where this culture group was found unmingled with the later Gerzean culture group; however, this period is better attested at the Naqada site, thus it is also referred to as the Naqada I culture. Black-topped ware continued to be produced, but white cross-line ware, a type of pottery which was decorated with close parallel white lines crossed by another set of close parallel white lines, began to be produced during this time. The Amratian period falls between S.D. 30 and 39 in Petrie's Sequence Dating system. Trade between Upper and Lower Egypt was attested at this time, as newly excavated objects indicate. A stone vase from the north was found at el-Amra, and copper, which is not present in Egypt, was apparently imported from the Sinai, or perhaps from Nubia. Obsidian and an extremely small amount of gold were both definitively imported from Nubia during this time. Trade with the oases was also likely.
The Gerzean Culture, named after the site of Gerza, was the next stage in Egyptian cultural development, and it was during this time that the foundation for Dynastic Egypt was laid. Gerzean culture was largely an unbroken development out of Amratian Culture, starting in the delta and moving south through upper Egypt; however, it failed to dislodge Amratian Culture in Nubia.Gerzean culture coincided with a significant drop in rainfall, and farming produced the vast majority of food. With increased food supplies, the populace adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle, and the larger settlements grew to cities of about 5,000 residents. It was in this time that the city dwellers started using mud brick to build their cities. Copper instead of stone was increasingly used to make tools and weaponry. Silver, gold, lapis, and faience were used ornamentally, and the grinding palettes used for eye-paint since the Badarian period began to be adorned with relief carvings
Dynastic Egypt
Early dynastic period
The historical records of ancient Egypt begin with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3150 BC. According to Egyptian tradition Menes, thought to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first king. This Egyptian culture, customs, art expression, architecture, and social structure was closely tied to religion, remarkably stable, and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years.
Egyptian chronology, which involves regnal years, began around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology is the chronology accepted during the twentieth century, but it does not include any of the major revision proposals that also have been made in that time. Even within a single work, archaeologists often will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers or topics related to ancient Egypt. There also are several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt) that was written during the Ptolemaic era, during the third century BC.
Stela of the 2nd dynasty pharaoh Raneb, displaying the hieroglyph for his name within a serekh, surmounted by Horus. On display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Prior to the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypt's history thereafter, the country came to be known as the Two Lands. The rulers established a national administration and appointed royal governors.
According to Manetho, the first king was Menes, but archeological findings support the view that the first pharaoh to claim to have united the two lands was Narmer (the final king of the Protodynastic Period). His name is known primarily from the famous Narmer Palette, whose scenes have been interpreted as the act of uniting Upper and Lower Egypt.
Funeral practices for the elite resulted in the construction of mastaba tombs, which later became models for subsequent Old Kingdom constructions such as the Step pyramid.
Old Kingdom
.
The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as spanning the period of time when Egypt was ruled by the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (2686 BC – 2134 BC). The royal capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom was located at Memphis, where Djoser established his court. The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known, however, for the large number of pyramids, which were constructed at this time as pharaonic burial places. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as "the Age of the Pyramids." The first notable pharaoh of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (2630–2611 BC) of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid) in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara.
The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as spanning the period of time when Egypt was ruled by the Third Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (2686 BC – 2134 BC). The royal capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom was located at Memphis, where Djoser established his court. The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known, however, for the large number of pyramids, which were constructed at this time as pharaonic burial places. For this reason, the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as "the Age of the Pyramids." The first notable pharaoh of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (2630–2611 BC) of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid) in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara.
It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes, ruled solely by the pharaoh. Subsequently the former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians in this era worshiped their pharaoh as a god, believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops.
The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached their zenith under the Fourth Dynasty. Sneferu, the dynasty's founder, is believed to have commissioned at least three pyramids; while his son and successor Khufu erected the Great Pyramid of Giza, Sneferu had more stone and brick moved than any other pharaoh. Khufu (Greek Cheops), his son Khafra (Greek Chephren), and his grandson Menkaura (Greek Mycerinus), all achieved lasting fame in the construction of their pyramids. To organize and feed the manpower needed to create these pyramids required a centralized government with extensive powers, and Egyptologists believe the Old Kingdom at this time demonstrated this level of sophistication. Recent excavations near the pyramids led by Mark Lehner have uncovered a large city which seems to have housed, fed and supplied the pyramid workers. Although it was once believed that slaves built these monuments, a theory based on the biblical Exodus story, study of the tombs of the workmen, who oversaw construction on the pyramids, has shown they were built by a corvée of peasants drawn from across Egypt. They apparently worked while the annual Nile flood covered their fields, as well as a very large crew of specialists, including stone cutters, painters, mathematicians and priests.
Graywacke statue of the pharaoh Menkaura and his consort Queen Khamerernebty II. Originally from his Giza Valley temple, now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
The Fifth Dynasty began with Userkhaf (starting c. 2495 BC) and was marked by the growing importance of the cult of sun god Ra. Consequently less efforts were devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the 4th dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in Abusir. The decoration of pyramid complexes grew more elaborate during the dynasty and its last king, Unas, was the first to have the pyramid texts inscribed in his pyramid. Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony, incense such as myrrh and frankincense, gold, copper and other useful metals compelled the ancient Egyptians to navigate of the open seas. Evidence from the pyramid of Sahure, second king of the dynasty, shows that a regular trade existed with the Syrian cost to procure cedar wood. Pharaohs also launched expeditions to the famed Land of Punt, possibly in modern day Ethiopia and Somalia, for ebony, ivory and aromatic resins.
During the sixth dynasty (2345–2181 BC), the power of pharaohs gradually weakened in favor of powerful nomarchs (regional governors). These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from the central authority of the pharaoh. Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of Pepi II (2278–2184 BC) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles and the country slipped into civil wars mere decades after the close of Pepi II's reign. The final blow came when a severe drought affected the region which resulted from a drastic drop in precipitation during the 22nd century BC, producing consistently low Nile flood levels. The result was the collapse of the Old Kingdom followed by decades of famine and strife.
first Intermediate Period
After the fall of the Old Kingdom came a roughly 200-year stretch of time known as the First Intermediate Period, which is generally thought to include a relatively obscure set of pharaohs running from the end of the Sixth to the Tenth, and most of the Eleventh Dynasty. Most of these were likely local monarchs who did not hold much power outside of their own limited domain, and none held power over the whole of Egypt.
Pottery model of a house used in a burial from the First Intermediate Period, on display at the Royal Ontario Museum.
While there are next to no official records covering this period, there are a number of fictional texts known as Lamentations from the early period of the subsequent Middle Kingdom that may shed some light on what happened during this period. Some of these texts reflect on the breakdown of rule, others allude to invasion by "Asiatic bowmen". In general the stories focus on a society where the natural order of things in both society and nature was overthrown.
It is also highly likely that it was during this period that all of the pyramid and tomb complexes were robbed. Further lamentation texts allude to this fact, and by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom mummies are found decorated with magical spells that were once exclusive to the pyramid of the kings of the sixth dynasty.
By 2160 BC a new line of pharaohs (the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties) consolidated Lower Egypt from their capital in Herakleopolis Magna. A rival line (the Eleventh Dynasty) based at Thebes reunited Upper Egypt and a clash between the two rival dynasties was inevitable. Around 2055 BC the Theban forces defeated the Heracleopolitan Pharaohs, reunited the Two Lands. The reign of its first pharaoh, Mentuhotep II marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom.
Middle Kingdom
Middle Kingdom
The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty, roughly between 2030 BC and 1640 BC.
The period comprises two phases, the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty onwards which was centered around el-Lisht. These two dynasties were originally considered to be the full extent of this unified kingdom, but historians now consider the 13th Dynasty to at least partially belong to the Middle Kingdom.
The earliest pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom traced their origin to a nomarch of Thebes, "Intef the Great, son of Iku", who is mentioned in a number of contemporary inscriptions. However, his immediate successor Mentuhotep II is considered the first pharaoh of this dynasty.
An inscription carved during the reign of Wahankh Intef II shows that he was the first of this dynasty to claim to rule over the whole of Egypt, a claim which brought the Thebeans into conflict with the rulers of Herakleopolis Magna, the Tenth Dynasty. Intef undertook several campaigns northwards, and captured the important nome of Abydos.
Warfare continued intermittently between the Thebean and Heracleapolitan dynasties until the 14th regnal year of Nebhetepra Mentuhotep II, when the Herakleopolitans were defeated, and the Theban dynasty began to consolidate their rule. Mentuhotep II is known to have commanded military campaigns south into Nubia, which had gained its independence during the First Intermediate Period. There is also evidence for military actions against Palestine. The king reorganized the country and placed a vizier at the head of civil administration for the country.
An Osiride statue of Mentuhotep II, the founder of the Middle Kingdom
Mentuhotep IV was the final pharaoh of this dynasty, and despite being absent from various lists of pharaohs, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments. The leader of this expedition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed to be the future pharaoh Amenemhet I, the first king of the 12th Dynasty. Amenemhet is widely assumed by some Egyptologists to have either usurped the throne or assumed power after Mentuhotep IV died childless.
Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt, known as Itjtawy, thought to be located near the present-day el-Lisht, although the chronicler Manetho claims the capital remained at Thebes. Amenemhat forcibly pacified internal unrest, curtailed the rights of the nomarchs, and is known to have at launched at least one campaign into Nubia. His son Senusret I continued the policy of his father to recapture Nubia and other territories lost during the First Intermediate Period. The Libyans were subdued under his forty-five year reign and Egypt's prosperity and security were secured.
Senusret III (1878 BC – 1839 BC) was a warrior-king, leading his troops deep into Nubia, and built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish Egypt's formal boundaries with the unconquered areas of its territory. Amenemhet III (1860 BC – 1815 BC) is considered the last great pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom.
Egypt's population began to exceed food production levels during the reign of Amenemhat III, who then ordered the exploitation of the Fayyum and increased mining operations in the Sinaï desert. He also invited Asiatic settlers to Egypt to labor on Egypt's monuments. Late in his reign the annual floods along the Nile began to fail, further straining the resources of the government. The Thirteenth Dynasty and Fourteenth Dynasty witnessed the slow decline of Egypt into the Second Intermediate Period in which some of the Asiatic settlers of Amenemhat III would grasp power over Egypt as the Hyksos.
Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos
The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Ancient Egypt once again fell into disarray between the end of the Middle Kingdom, and the start of the New Kingdom. This period is best known as the time the Hyksos (an Asiatic people) made their appearance in Egypt, the reigns of its kings comprising the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties.
The Thirteenth Dynasty proved unable to hold onto the long land of Egypt, and a provincial ruling family located in the marshes of the western Delta at Xois broke away from the central authority to form the Fourteenth Dynasty. The splintering of the land accelerated after the reign of the Thirteenth Dynasty king Neferhotep I.
The Hyksos first appear during the reign of the Thirteenth Dynasty pharaoh Sobekhotep IV, and by 1720 BC took control of the town of Avaris. The outlines of the traditional account of the "invasion" of the land by the Hyksos is preserved in the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, who records that during this time the Hyksos overran Egypt, led by Salitis, the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty. In the last decades, however, the idea of a simple migration, with little or no violence involved, has gained some support. Under this theory, the Egyptian rulers of 13th Dynasty were unable to stop these new migrants from travelling to Egypt from Asia because they were weak kings who were struggling to cope with various domestic problems including possibly famine.
The Hyksos princes and chieftains ruled in the eastern Delta with their local Egyptian vassals. The Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty rulers established their capital and seat of government at Memphis and their summer residence at Avaris.
The Hyksos kingdom was centered in the eastern Nile Delta and Middle Egypt and was limited in size, never extending south into Upper Egypt, which was under control by Theban-based rulers. Hyksos relations with the south seem to have been mainly of a commercial nature, although Theban princes appear to have recognized the Hyksos rulers and may possibly have provided them with tribute for a period.
Around the time Memphis fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes declared its independence from the vassal dynasty in Itj-tawy and set itself up as the Seventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty was to prove the salvation of Egypt and would eventually lead the war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The two last kings of this dynasty were Tao II the Brave and Kamose. Ahmose I completed the conquest and expulsion of the Hyksos from the delta region, restored Theban rule over the whole of Egypt and successfully reasserted Egyptian power in its formerly subject territories of Nubia and Canaan. His reign marks this beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom period
Hieroglyphic ( ἱερογλύφος)
Hieroglyphic
The text of the Rosetta Stone :
Rosetta Stone is a stone engraved hieroglyphic texts and Greek Dimutkip called Rosetta stone because he discovered Rashid City of Alexandria and the content of the writing in praise of the Pharaoh of Egypt's New Ptolemy V. The discovery of this stone in August 1799 Pierre Francois Xavier Bouchard (1772-1832), and was an engineer officer one of the officers of the French campaign, while doing engineering work when "Julian Castle" near Rashid
"In the ninth year, the fourth month of Ksendks which corresponds to the month of Egypt's population second winter, the eighteenth ment during the reign of His Majesty Hora Ra boy who appeared as a king on the throne of his father, (representative) two women, a great force, which proved earths .
Hieroglyphic
Alheirglafah (from the Greek ἱερογλύφος) means "holy inscription", and the term as used Darcoa writing systems indicates the class of pictorial writing systems fall under writing Egyptian Alheirglafah and other writing systems, including Mayan and Chinese writing in its infancy.
In common usage indicate Alheirglafah Egyptian writing system that was used in ancient Egypt to record the Egyptian language and carry out addition and subtraction and computation. The oldest and we got a formal written Balheirglafah manuscript between 3300 BC and 3200 BC..
The manuscript images were used to symbolize the voices of the initial words, was inspired by the ancient Egyptian those pictures of common assets in the Egyptian environment at the time, from the plant, animal and human members and articles and others. Such as the mouth and utter (ra), and eye and pronounce (Leary) and the throne and utter (six) and House and utter (Bur) or snake (fi) and taken them first letter (P), and Owl (m) and buzzards (a), as used symbols entered later Arabic writing such as (e) and (f) and (u).
They also took the names of two of the characters express digram: like home (Bur), and the throne (six), and rabbit (s). Also used some three-letter words, such as: Ankh (meaning life), Hotep (meaning Radi or sacrifice), and a group (which means beautiful).
Used Alheirglafah pattern writing a formal event logging on the monuments and religious texts on the walls of temples, tombs and surfaces statues and Alolouh stone carved and wood panels colored, and because of their nature were considered since ancient system of writing and art decorative beautiful at the same time, like that of Arabic calligraphy.
One of the most important writings when the ancient Egyptians to write their names, and the names of the father and mother and sisters, because they believed that he sent in the afterlife must maintain the name of the person along with maintaining his body, and the loss of the name is a full yard. They write well and jobs Bhanb names, such as Prime book Omnmahat (Amir - Shes Amnmahat), and if he died Chairman book Omnmahat example, were writing his name and function as follows: "Amir - Shes Omnmahat, shiny Khro" any president book Omnmahat, sincere in his words (before Gods day of reckoning) in the sense of late.
The line Alheirglfa father first all writing systems subsequent since built folk Semites some symbols system alphabetically to record sounds of their language is the line Sinai initial devised him later all writing systems alphabet known in the world almost extinct, including the remaining, mainly writing ancient Greek and Coptic then Romanian , including the writing of European languages.
After the demise of the knowledge read Alheirglafah in later times preoccupied many question solve symbols, and the sources that a nun and I'm Egyptian and brutality were able to read, at least in part.
In the modern era was the discovery of the Rosetta Stone at the hands of an officer in the French campaign, and the subsequent work of Champollion to decipher the impact regularly employed on the progress of Egyptology.
Reference to the language of ancient Egypt as "language Alheirglafah" between ordinary people and the media is a common mistake, because Alheirglafah is writing systme.
symbols:
Writing Alheirglafah consists of a series of engravings, drawn from everyday life writing is graphic in addition to the presence alphabet though they are more complicated than the alphabet now known on scattered Valabagdih languages in Alheirglafah divided to three groups.
Group A: are symbols unilateralism, any unilateral characters sound like the usual characters today, such as (a) and (b) and (c), and others.
Group B: bilateral sound symbols, a symbol or pattern one and but utters two letters together, such as (from) and (Barr) and (six) and others,
Group C: Triple sound symbols, a pattern, or a single icon, but I mean three votes, such as (Hotep) and (Ankh) and (AGT) and (prose), and (Navarre) and others.
This is in addition to a range of other marks that are not pronounced, but it is for the purposes of grammatical such as determining the plural and the masculine and feminine and some symbols proven meaningless known allowances, and allowances (man) and (woman) and (King), or member of the body, such as (hand), (a man) and (head) and (nose) and the eye), and others. These allocations are sometimes added after the word to emphasize the meaning.
The word derived Harglafa from the Greek words (confidential) and (Jlovos) and mean (holy writing).
decoder Tlassmha: (unlock the mystery)
The earliest attempts to decode the talismans write Alheirglafah to the Greeks. There was a belief they have that symbols Alheirglafah are symbols sham. From the writings of the Greeks on this subject and we have received a single manuscript is "Alheirglafah" author Horapulon Hieroglyphica of Horapollon.
In Europe during the Middle Ages there was no attention Balheirglafah only that in 1422 reached a manuscript Horapulon to Venice, sparking interest in them so that some Renaissance artists they draw imaginary building codes of Horapulon descriptions and used them in their drawings as artistic elements.
Several attempts have revealed of talismans Alheirglliver before the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in the modern era, including attempts Jesuit Father Krcher who knew that the Coptic nothing but the tone or language descended from ancient Egyptian.
The first efforts after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone attempts Philippe de Sassy 1802 and was a scholar in Arabic has focused his efforts on the line Demotic because he thought that has to do with line patch Arab similarity ostensibly in flow, but the research has only one result is that he knew that the names of kings placed in a cartouche benefiting Champollion later.
After the discovery of the Rosetta Stone during the French campaign on Egypt the world Chambolion published his discovery on how to decipher the language Alheirglafah in 1822. Was considered Chambolion first discovered that symbols Alheirglafah are beep codes and the PVC symbols.
However, in 2004 revealed Egyptologist Okasha El Daly that first discovered that the symbols are a beep codes any character is the Arab world'm brutal and it was in his longing Almstham to know symbols pens, who has studied the 89 language and writing system outdated including Alheirglifa and analyzed many of symbols [1] developed by the year 861 AD, has achieved Orientalist Austrian Joseph Hummer those manuscript and translated into English and published in London in 1806 or 16 years before the discovery of Chambolion, and dissemination of news in several Western media [2]. The Syrian researcher Yahya Mir science to achieve the same result, and some went on to say that Chambolion had been briefed that this manuscript, but do not have evidence to confirm or refute this claim.
Posted researcher Iyad Khaled foul manuscript (longing Almstham in defined symbols pens) to the son of a brutal Nabati, in Dar al-Fikr Damascus the year 2003, and between in book that was brutal races to decipher some icons Alheirglafah.
other lines:
To by Alheirglafa regime found another writing system more fluid and shorthand and easier in handwriting is Alheiratiqi line that was used to write the religious and medical documents, administrative, scientific, literary, evolution is up to date with the evolution line Alheirgafah not descended from him and not based on it. While devised line Demotic of Alheiratiqi in subsequent ages. After Greek colonization of Egypt and the mixing of Egyptian and Greek cultures devised another writing system for writing the Coptic language - a style to which they arrived in the Egyptian language that historical period - is the line-based Coptic symbols of the Greek alphabet.
other writings Harglafah:
The oldest examples of writing Alheirglafah Maya in Central America, to about 300 m. The letters of this writing consists of symbols is a literal representation of ideas, but some researchers believe that a number of signals representing sounds, has not yet been deciphered Mayan most Alheirglafah characters. And dealing with texts that researchers were able to decipher things, of religion, and astronomy, and recording time. The characters Alheirglafah Alozatkih
composed of images that represent ideas, and it also has valuable voice. They merged Alozatkih symbols multiple things, to configure the voice, or the name of something, or an abstract idea, have not been represented. And similar to those symbols modern writing in which they are used (writing a word or phrase drew little one or a section thereof) and Hittites also introduced, writing system Herglivia about 1500 BC.. Has represented some of the icons recital while words like other symbols of soundbites.
